Кузнецов Михаил Юрьевич
British Moral Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century (c. 1690-1800)

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  • Аннотация:
    At one time I submitted a resume for a job in British thought, but had no luck. In concrete: Research Associate position in Philosophy at the School of Philosophy, University College Dublin, as advertised for the ERC-funded project "BMoral: New Histories of British Moral Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century (c. 1690-1800)."

   My research focuses on the development of British moral philosophy in the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries, tracing its evolution from ethical rationalism and empiricism to the formation of societal ideals in the Victorian era, reflecting philosophical currents such as the Enlightenment and sentimentalism. This intellectual trajectory is central to my work, as it highlights the dynamic interplay between philosophical ideas and their cultural expressions in literature and moral discourse.
   The historical context of British moral philosophy is deeply significant to my research. The Dutch Revolution, alongside the scientific advancements of Copernicus and Descartes, played a pivotal role in shaping the intellectual climate that led to the English Civil War and the Great British Revolution. These events fostered a fertile ground for moral and ethical inquiries, as seen in the radical ideas of groups like the Levellers, Diggers and Quakers. These movements, with their emphasis on equality, justice, and communal ethics.
   Key figures in eighteenth-century British moral philosophy who have shaped my research include:
  
   Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury (1671-1713), whose concept of the moral sense emphasized innate ethical sensibilities, bridging rationalism and sentimentalism.
   David Hume (1711-1776), whose empirical approach to morality and focus on human passions reshaped ethical discourse.
   Adam Smith (1723-1790), whose Theory of Moral Sentiments explored sympathy as a cornerstone of moral behavior, influencing later societal ideals.
  
   I am particularly inspired by the contributions of women philosophers in this period, whose works are often underrepresented in traditional histories. Three notable women philosophers include:
  
   1. Mary Astell (1666-1731), a pioneering feminist philosopher whose works, such as A Serious Proposal to the Ladies (1694), argued for women"s education and moral agency, engaging with rationalist ethics. Suggested reading: Astell, M. (2002) A Serious Proposal to the Ladies. Parts I and II. Edited by P. Springborg. Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press Ltd.
   2. Catharine Trotter Cockburn (1679-1749), who defended moral rationalism and engaged with John Locke"s philosophy in works like A Defence of Mr. Locke"s Essay of Human Understanding (1702). Suggested reading: Cockburn, C. T. (2006). Philosophical Writings (P. Sheridan, Ed.). Peterborough, CA: Broadview Press.
   3. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689-1762), whose letters and essays, while not strictly philosophical treatises, contributed to moral discourse through reflections on virtue, gender, and society. Suggested reading: Montagu, M. W. (1997). Selected Letters (I. Grundy, Ed.). Penguin Classics.
  
   British moral philosophy, especially through the lens of sentimentalism, excelled at describing the intricate psychological processes that bind individuals into societies. Adam Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments is a masterpiece in this regard. His concept of "sympathy" (closer to what we now call empathy) is not merely a feeling but a complex imaginative process-the act of placing ourselves in another's situation.
   Smith"s detailed analysis of the "impartial spectator"-an internalized judge we construct from the expectations and reactions of others-provides a remarkably useful model for conscience and social regulation. It explains how social norms are internalized and how we learn self-command. This framework is invaluable for understanding social cohesion, the development of character, and the origins of social approval and shame. It moves beyond legislation to explore the unwritten rules that govern everyday interaction, a concept crucial to sociology and social psychology today.
   Moral Sense Theory and Sentimentalism, pioneered by the 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury and developed by Francis Hutcheson, offered a different but equally powerful foundation. By positing an innate "moral sense" or a natural capacity for benevolence, they located morality within human nature itself. This was not a rejection of reason but an integration of it with our emotional faculties. David Hume then radicalized this, arguing that reason is merely the "slave of the passions" and that moral distinctions are ultimately grounded in our capacity for empathy and fellow feeling. This shift was immensely useful: it made morality a matter of human psychology and social experience, not just abstract deduction, making it more relatable and empirically investigable. The usefulness of British moral philosophy is profound and multifaceted. It provided a new, sustainable foundation for ethics in a modernizing world. It offered deep insights into the human psychology that enables cooperation and society. It laid the ethical groundwork for the economic and political systems that still dominate the West. It empowered marginalized voices to argue for their own inclusion. And ultimately, it shaped the moral character of a nation for centuries. It was a philosophy that sought not only to understand the world but to provide the tools to improve it-a utility that remains powerfully relevant today as we continue to debate the meaning of justice, the requirements of community, and the nature of a good life.
   Mary Astell wielded rationalist ethics to powerful effect. By arguing that women, as rational creatures, were just as capable of moral and intellectual development as men, she used the tools of philosophical rationalism to dismantle prejudices that excluded women from education and full moral agency. Her work is a prime example of how a philosophical framework (rationalism) can be directed toward social progress and reform.
   Catharine Trotter Cockburn, in defending Locke, engaged in the highest levels of philosophical debate, reinforcing the idea that moral principles are founded on reason and are thus accessible to all who engage in reasoned discourse, regardless of gender.
   Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, through her worldly letters, practiced applied moral philosophy. Her reflections on virtue, cultural difference, and society offered a practical, nuanced engagement with the moral ideals of her time, testing them against the complexities of real life.
   The development of British moral philosophy in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was further crystallized by the rise of utilitarianism, which provided a systematic framework for evaluating moral and social policies based on their consequences. This tradition, grounded in empiricism and a commitment to social reform, stood in stark contrast to both rationalist and sentimentalist approaches, emphasizing utility-the greatest happiness for the greatest number-as the ultimate criterion for moral judgment. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) is widely regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianism. His principle of utility sought to create a scientific basis for ethics and legislation, arguing that actions are right insofar as they promote pleasure and wrong as they produce pain. Bentham"s rigorous, quantitative approach to happiness, alongside his advocacy for legal reform, prison improvement, and universal suffrage, reflected a pragmatic desire to align moral theory with social progress. His follower, John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), refined utilitarianism by introducing qualitative distinctions between types of pleasure, arguing that intellectual and moral pleasures are superior to mere physical satisfaction. In his works Utilitarianism (1861) and On Liberty (1859), Mill defended individual freedom as essential to societal well-being, forming a liberal utilitarianism that balanced collective welfare with personal rights. Henry Sidgwick (1838-1900) further systematized utilitarian thought in his monumental The Methods of Ethics (1874), rigorously analyzing intuitionism, egoism, and utilitarianism. Sidgwick acknowledged deep conflicts between self-interest and morality, striving to reconcile them within a coherent ethical framework that retained utilitarian impartiality while acknowledging the complexity of moral reasoning.
   Beyond the utilitarian canon, other significant thinkers contributed to the richness of British moral thought. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) grounded morality in self-interest and the need for social contract to avoid the horrors of the state of nature. John Locke (1632-1704) argued for natural rights and moral law based on reason and divine will. Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746) developed the moral sense theory, introducing the utilitarian formula "the greatest happiness for the greatest number" before Bentham. Richard Price (1723-1791) defended rational intuitionism, asserting that moral truths are objective and knowable through reason. Edmund Burke (1729-1797) offered a conservative critique of rationalist morality, emphasizing tradition, sentiment, and gradual reform. William Paley (1743-1805) provided a theological version of utilitarianism, linking moral duty to the will of God and the pursuit of happiness. Thomas Reid (1710-1796), founder of the Scottish School of Common Sense, argued against skepticism and for innate moral principles. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) applied evolutionary theory to ethics, coining the term "survival of the fittest" and advocating a laissez-faire approach to social development. T.H. Green (1836-1882), an idealist philosopher, rejected empiricist ethics and argued for self-realization within a community guided by the common good. Finally, G.E. Moore (1873-1958), in his Principia Ethica (1903), critiqued naturalistic ethics including utilitarianism, inaugurating analytic metaethics with his concept of the naturalistic fallacy and the indefinability of "good". Together, these thinkers illustrate the diversity and depth of British moral philosophy, reflecting its enduring engagement with questions of reason, sentiment, duty and social utility.
   Below, I provide a list of references in APA style that inform my research on British moral philosophy.
  
   References
  
   1. Darwall, S. (1995). The British moralists and the internal 'ought': 1640-1740. Cambridge University Press.
   2. Gill, M. B. (2006). The British moralists on human nature and the birth of secular ethics. Cambridge University Press.
   3. Haakonssen, K. (1996). Natural Law and Moral Philosophy: From Grotius to the Scottish Enlightenment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   4. Hume, D. (2000). A Treatise of Human Nature (D. F. Norton & M. J. Norton, Eds.). Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1739-1740).
   5. Shaftesbury, A. A. C. (1999). Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times. Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1711).
   6. Smith, A. (2002). The Theory of Moral Sentiments (K. Haakonssen, Ed.). Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1759).
   7. Stephen, L. (1881). History of English Thought in The Eighteenth Century (Vol. 2). London: Smith, Elder & CO. (Original work published 1876).
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