Энциклопедия Wikipedia : другие произведения.

Энциклопедические сведения о переводе

Самиздат: [Регистрация] [Найти] [Рейтинги] [Обсуждения] [Новинки] [Обзоры] [Помощь|Техвопросы]
Ссылки:
 Ваша оценка:
  • Аннотация:
    Все о переводе (на английском языке) с многочисленными ссылками Translation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia см. страницу on line: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation См. все о переводе на русском языке: http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4

Your continued donations keep Wikipedia running!    

   Translation
   From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
   Jump to: navigation, search
   For other uses, see Translation (disambiguation).
   Translation is an activity comprising the interpretation of the meaning of a text in one language -- the source text -- and the production, in another language, of a new, equivalent text -- the target text, or translation.
   Traditionally, translation has been a human activity, although attempts have been made to automate and computerize the translation of natural-language texts -- machine translation -- or to use computers as an aid to translation -- computer-assisted translation.
   The goal of translation is to establish a relation of equivalence of intent between the source and target texts (that is to say, to ensure that both texts communicate the same message), while taking into account a number of constraints. These constraints include context, the rules of grammar of both languages, their writing conventions, their idioms, and the like.
   Contents
  -- 1 Translation vs. interpreting
  -- 2 Translation process
  -- 3 Measuring success in translation
  -- 4 Translation problems
  -- 4.1 General problems
  -- 4.2 The problem of "untranslatability"
  -- 4.3 The problem of common words
  -- 5 Specialised types of translation
  -- 5.1 Administrative translation
  -- 5.2 Commercial translation
  -- 5.3 Computer translation
  -- 5.4 Economic translation
  -- 5.5 Financial translation
  -- 5.6 General translation
  -- 5.7 Legal translation
  -- 5.8 Literary translation
  -- 5.8.1 Translation of sung texts
  -- 5.9 Medical translation
  -- 5.10 Pedagogical translation
  -- 5.11 Pharmaceutical translation
  -- 5.12 Scientific translation
  -- 5.13 Scholarly translation
  -- 5.14 Technical translation
  -- 6 History
  -- 6.1 Translation of religious texts
  -- 7 Trends in translation
  -- 7.1 Machine translation
  -- 7.2 Computer-assisted translation
  -- 7.3 Cultural translation
  -- 8 Criticism of translation
  -- 9 See also
  -- 9.1 General
  -- 9.2 Translation theory
  -- 9.3 Noted translators
  -- 10 References
  -- 11 External links
  -- 11.1 About translation
  -- 11.2 Translation Associations
   0x01 graphic
[edit]
   Translation vs. interpreting
   A distinction is made between translation, which consists of transferring from one language to another ideas expressed in writing, and interpreting, which consists of transferring ideas expressed orally or by the use of gestures (as in the case of sign language).
   Although interpreting can be considered a subcategory of translation in regard to the analysis of the processes involved (translation studies), in practice the skills required for these two activities are not identical.
   [edit]
   Translation process
   The translation process, whether it be for translation or interpreting, can be described simply as:
      -- Decoding the meaning of the source text, and
      -- Re-encoding this meaning in the target language.
   To decode the meaning of a text the translator must first identify its component "translation units", that is to say the segments of the text to be treated as a cognitive unit. A translation unit may be a word, a phrase or even one or more sentences.
   Behind this seemingly simple procedure lies a complex cognitive operation. To decode the complete meaning of the source text, the translator must consciously and methodically interpret and analyse all its features. This process requires thorough knowledge of the grammar, semantics, syntax, idioms and the like of the source language, as well as the culture of its speakers.
   The translator needs the same in-depth knowledge to re-encode the meaning in the target language. In fact, often translators' knowledge of the target language is more important, and needs to be deeper, than their knowledge of the source language. For this reason, most translators translate into a language of which they are native speakers.
   In addition, knowledge of the subject matter being discussed is essential.
   In recent years studies in cognitive linguistics have been able to provide valuable insights into the cognitive process of translation.
   [edit]
   Measuring success in translation
   As the goal of translation is to ensure that the source and the target texts communicate the same message while taking into account the various constraints placed on the translator, a successful translation can be judged by two criteria:
      -- Faithfulness, also called fidelity, which is the extent to which the translation accurately renders the meaning of the source text, without adding to it or subtracting from it, and without intensifying or weakening any part of the meaning; and
      -- Transparency, which is the extent to which the translation appears to a native speaker of the target language to have originally been written in that language, and conforms to the language's grammatical, syntactic and idiomatic conventions.
   A translation meeting the first criterion is said to be a "faithful translation"; a translation meeting the second criterion is said to be an "idiomatic translation". The two are not necessarily exclusive.
   The criteria used to judge the faithfulness of a translation vary according to the subject, the precision of the original contents, the type, function and use of the text, its literary qualities, its social or historical context, and so forth.
   The criteria for judging the transparency of a translation would appear more straightforward: an unidiomatic translation "sounds" wrong, and in the extreme case of word-for-word translations generated by many machine translation systems, often result in patent nonsense.
   Nevertheless, in certain contexts a translator may knowingly strive to produce a literal translation. For example, literary translators and translators of religious works often adhere to the source text as much as possible. To do this they deliberately "stretch" the boundaries of the target language to produce an unidiomatic text. Likewise, a literary translator may wish to adopt words or expressions from the source language to provide "local colour" in the translation.
   The concepts of fidelity and transparency are looked at differently in recent translation theories. The idea that acceptable translations can be as creative and original as their source text is gaining momentum in some quarters.
   In recent decades, the most prominent advocates of non-transparent translation modes include the Franco-Canadian translation scholar Antoine Berman who identified twelve deforming tendencies inherent in most prose translations (L'Иpreuve de l'Иtranger, 1984), and the American theorist Lawrence Venuti who called upon translators to apply "foreignizing" translation strategies instead of domesticating ones (see, for example, his 'Call to Action' in The Translator's Invisibility, 1994).
   Many non-transparent translation theories draw on concepts of German Romanticism, with the most obvious influence on latter-day theories of foreignization being the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher. In his seminal lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation" (1813) he distinguished between translation methods that move "the writer toward [the reader]", i.e. transparency, and those that move the "reader toward [the author] ", i.e. respecting the foreignness of the source text. Schleiermacher clearly favoured the latter. It is worth pointing out, however, that his preference was motivated not so much by a desire to embrace the Foreign but was rather intended as a nationalist practice to oppose France's cultural domination and to promote German literature.
   The concepts of fidelity and transparency remain strong in Western traditions, however. They are not necessarily as prevalent in non-Western traditions. For example, the Indian epic Ramayana has numerous versions in many Indian languages and the stories in each are different from one another. If one looks into the words used for translation in Indian (either Aryan or Dravidian) languages, the freedom given to the translators is evident.
   [edit]
   Translation problems
   [edit]
   General problems
   Translation is inherently a difficult activity. Translators can face additional problems which make the process even more difficult, such as:
  -- Problems with the source text:
  -- Changes made to the text during the translation process
  -- Illegible text
  -- Misspelled or misprinted text
  -- Incomplete text
  -- Poorly written text
  -- Missing references in the text (for example the translator is to translate captions to missing photos)
  -- The source text contains a translation of a quotation that was originally made in the target language, and the original text is unavailable, making word-for-word quoting nearly impossible
  -- Obvious inaccuracies in the source text (for example "prehistoric Buddhist ruins", when Buddhism was not founded during prehistoric times)
  -- Language problems
  -- Dialect terms and neologisms
  -- Unexplained acronyms and abbreviations
  -- Obscure jargon
  -- Other
  -- Rhymes, puns and poetic meters
  -- Highly specific cultural references
  -- Subtle but important properties of language such as euphony or dissonance
   [edit]
   The problem of "untranslatability"
   See also full article: Untranslatability .
   The question of whether particular words are untranslatable is often debated, with lists of "untranslatable" words being produced from time to time.
   These lists often include words such as saudade, a Portuguese word (also used in Spanish) as an example of an "untranslatable". It translates quite neatly however as "sorrowful longing", but does have some nuances that are hard to include in a translation; for instance, it is a positive-valued concept, a subtlety which is not clear in this basic translation.
   Some words are hard to translate only if one wishes to remain in the same grammatical category. For example, it is hard to find a noun corresponding to the Russian почемучка (pochemuchka) or the Yiddish ?????? (shlimazl), but the English adjectives "inquisitive" and "jinxed" correspond just fine.
   Journalists are naturally enthusiastic when linguists document obscure words with local flavour, and are wont to declare them "untranslatable", but in reality these incredibly culture-laden terms are the easiest of all to translate, even more so than universal concepts such as "mother". This is because it is standard practice to translate these words by the same word in the other language, borrowing it for the first time if necessary. For example, an English version of a menu in a French restaurant would rarely translate pБtИ de foie gras as "fat liver paste", although this is a good description. Instead, the accepted translation is simply pБtИ de foie gras, or, at most, foie gras pБtИ. In some cases, only transcription is required: Japanese ?? translates into English as wasabi. A short description or parallel with a familiar concept is also often acceptable: ??? may also be translated as "Japanese horseradish" or "Japanese mustard".
   The more obscure and specific to a culture the term is, the simpler it is to translate. For example, the name of an insignificant settlement such as Euroa in Australia is automatically just "Euroa" in every language in the world that uses the Roman alphabet, whilst it takes some knowledge to be aware that Saragossa is Zaragoza, Saragosse, etc. or that China is ??, Cina, Chine, and so forth.
   [edit]
   The problem of common words
   The words that are truly difficult to translate are often the small, common words. For example, the verb "to get" in all its various uses covers nearly seven columns of the most recent version of the Robert-Collins French-English dictionary. The same is true for most apparently simple, common words, such as "go" (seven columns), "come" (four and a half columns), and so forth.
   Cultural aspects can complicate translation. Consider the example of a word like "bread". At first glance, it is a very simple word, referring in everyday use to just one thing, with obvious translations in other languages. But ask people from England, France or China to describe or draw "bread", du pain or ?? (miЮn b?o), and they will describe different things, based on their individual cultures.
   Differing levels of precision inherent in a language also play a role. What does "there" mean? Even discounting idiomatic uses such as "there, there, don't cry", we can be confronted by several possibilities. If something is "there" but not very far away, a Spaniard will say ahМ; if it is further away he or she will say allМ, unless there are connotations of "near there", "over yonder" or "on that side", in which case the word is likely to be allА. Conversely, in colloquial French, all three "there" concepts plus the concept of "here" all tend to be expressed with the word lЮ.
   A language may contain expressions which refer to concepts that do not exist in another language. For example, the French "tutoyer"' and "vouvoyer" would both be translated into English as "to address as 'you'", since the singular informal second person pronoun is archaic in English. Yet this simplistic translation completely destroys the meaning of the verbs: "vouvoyer" means to address using the formal "you" form ("vous"), whereas "tutoyer" means to use the informal form ("tu"). Indeed, when English was using the "thou" pronoun, "thou" as a verb would have been a translation for "tutoyer"; today, it is difficult to give a concise translation that captures the nuances of "tu" vs. "vous."
   The problem often lies in failure to distinguish between translation and glossing. Glossing is what a glossary does: give a short (usually one-word) equivalent for each term. Translation, as explained above, is decoding meaning and intent at the text level (not the word level or even sentence level) and then re-encoding them in a target language. Words like saudade and ?????? are hard to "gloss" into a single other word, but given two or more words they can be perfectly adequately "translated". Similarly, depending on the context, the meaning of the French word "tutoyer", or Spanish "tutear", could be translated as "to be on first name terms with". "Bread" has perhaps a better claim to being untranslatable, since even if we resort to saying "French bread", "Chinese bread", "Algerian bread", etc. we are relying on our audience knowing what these are like.
   [edit]
   Specialised types of translation
   Any type of written text can be a candidate for translation, however, the translation industry is often categorised by a number of areas of specialization. Each specialisation has its own challenges and difficulties. An incomplete list of these specialised types of translation includes:
   [edit]
   Administrative translation
   The translation of administrative texts.
   [edit]
   Commercial translation
   The translation of commercial (business) texts.
   [edit]
   Computer translation
   The translation of computer programs and related documents (manuals, help files, web sites.)
   The notion of localisation, that is the adaptation of the translation to the target language and culture, is gaining prevalence in this area of specialisation.
   (Note that the term "computer translation" is sometimes used to refer to the practice of machine translation, using computers to automatically translate texts.)
   [edit]
   Economic translation
   The translation of texts in the fields of economics.
   [edit]
   Financial translation
   The translation of texts of a financial nature.
   [edit]
   General translation
   The translation of "general" texts. In practice, few texts are really "general"; most fall into a specialisation but are not seen as such.
   [edit]
   Legal translation
   See also full article: Legal translation.
   The translation of legal documents (laws, contracts, treaties, etc.).
   A skilled legal translator is normally as adept at the law (often with in-depth legal training) as with translation, since inaccuracies in legal translations can have serious results.
   (One example of problematic translation is the Treaty of Waitangi, where the English and Maori versions differ in certain important areas.)
   Sometimes, to prevent such problems, one language will be declared authoritative, with the translations not being considered legally binding, although in many cases this is not possible, as one party does not want to be seen as subservient to the other.
   [edit]
   Literary translation
   The translation of literary works (novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.)
   If the translation of non-literary works is regarded as a skill, the translation of fiction and poetry is much more of an art. In multilingual countries such as Canada, translation is often considered a literary pursuit in its own right. Figures such as Sheila Fischman, Robert Dickson and Linda Gaboriau are notable in Canadian literature specifically as translators, and the Governor General's Awards present prizes for the year's best English-to-French and French-to-English literary translations with the same standing as more conventional literary awards.
   Writers such as Vladimir Nabokov have also made a name for themselves as literary translators.
   Many consider poetry the most difficult genre to translate, given the difficulty in rendering both the form and the content in the target language. In 1959 in his influential paper "On Linguistic Aspects of Translation", the Russian-born linguist and semiotician Roman Jakobson even went as far as to declare that "poetry by definition [was] untranslatable". In 1974 the American poet James Merrill wrote a poem, "Lost in Translation," which in part explores this subject. This question was also explored in Douglas Hofstadter's 1997 book, Le Ton beau de Marot.
   [edit]
   Translation of sung texts
   Translation of sung texts -- sometimes referred to as a "singing translation" -- is closely linked to translation of poetry, simply because most vocal music, at least in the Western tradition, is set to verse, especially verse in regular patterns with rhyme. (Since the late 19th century musical setting of prose and free verse has also come about in some art music, although popular music tends to remain conservative in its retention of stanzaic forms with or without refrains.) A rudimentary example of translating poetry for singing is church hymns, such as German chorales translated into English by Catherine Winkworth.
   Translation of sung texts is generally much more restrictive than translation of poetry, because in the former there is little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation and a translation that dispenses with verse structure. One might modify or omit rhyme in a singing translation, but the assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical setting places great challenges on the translator. There is the option in prose, less so in verse, of adding or deleting a syllable here and there by subdividing or combining notes, respectively, but even with prose the process is nevertheless almost like strict verse translation because of the need to stick as close as possible to the original prosody. Other considerations in writing a singing translation include repetition of words and phrases, the placement of rests and/or punctuation, the quality of vowels sung on high notes, and rhythmic features of the vocal line that may be more natural to the original language than to the target language.
   As with other kinds of literary translation, some singing translations are better than others; some fall out of favour due to datedness or inaccuracy.
   Whereas the singing of translated texts has been common for centuries, it is less necessary when a written translation is provided in some form to the listener, for instance, as inserts in concert programs or as projected titles in performance halls or visual media.
   [edit]
   Medical translation
   The translation of works of a medical nature.
   Like pharmaceutical translation, medical translation is specialisation where a mistranslation can have grave consequences.
   [edit]
   Pedagogical translation
   Translation practised as a means of learning a second language.
   Pedagogical translation is used to enrich (and to assess) the student's vocabulary in the second language, to help assimilate new syntactic structures and to verify the student's understanding. Unlike other types of translation, pedagogical translation takes place in the student's native (or dominant) language as well as the second language. That is to say that the student will translate both to and from the second language. Another difference between this mode of translation and other modes is that the goal is often literal translation of phrases taken out of context, and of text fragments, which may be completely fabricated for the purposes of the exercise.
   Pedagogical translation should not be confused with scholarly translation.
   [edit]
   Pharmaceutical translation
   The translation of works in the pharmaceutical industry.
   Like medical translation, pharmaceutical translation is specialisation where a mistranslation can have grave consequences.
   [edit]
   Scientific translation
   The translation of scientific texts.
   [edit]
   Scholarly translation
   The translation of specialised texts written in an academic environment.
   Scholarly translation should not be confused with pedagogical translation.
   [edit]
   Technical translation
   The translation of technical texts (manuals, instructions, etc.).
   More specifically, texts that contain a high amount of terminology, that is, words or expressions that are used (almost) only within a specific field, or that describe that field in a great deal of detail.
   [edit]
   History
   [edit]
   Translation of religious texts
   The translation of religious works has played an important role in world history. For instance the Buddhist monks who translated the Indian sutras into the Chinese language would often skew the translation to better adapt to China's very different culture. Thus notions such as filial piety were stressed.
   See Chinese Translation Theory
   One of the first instances of recorded translation activity in the West was the rendition of the Old Testament into Greek in the third century B.C.E.; this translation is known as the Septuagint, alluding to the seventy translators (seventy-two in some versions) that were commissioned to translate the Bible on the island of Paphos, with each translator working in solitary confinement in a separate cell. Legend has it that all seventy versions were exactly identical. The Septuagint became the source text for later translations into many other languages including Latin, Coptic, Armenian, and Georgian.
   St. Jerome, the patron saint of translation, is still considered one of the greatest translators in history for his work on translating the Bible into Latin. The Catholic Church used this translation (known as the Vulgate) for centuries, but even his translation met much controversy when it was released.
   The Protestant Reformation saw the translation of the Bible into the local languages of Europe, an act condemned by the Catholic Church and one that had a great impact on the split between Protestantism and Catholicism.
   Martin Luther's Bible in German and the King James Bible in English had lasting effects on the religion, culture, and language of those countries.
   See also: Bible translation, Translation of the Qur'an
   [edit]
   Trends in translation
   [edit]
   Machine translation
   See also full article: Machine translation.
   Machine translation (MT) is a form of translation where a computer program analyses the source text and produces a target text without human intervention.
   In recent years machine translation, a major goal of natural language processing, has met with limited success. Most machine translation involves some sort of human intervention, as it requires a pre-editing and a post-editing phase. Note that in machine translation, the translator supports the machine.
   Tools available on the Internet, such as AltaVista's Babel Fish, and low-cost translation programs, have brought machine translation technologies to a large public. These tools produce what is called a "gisting translation" -- a rough translation that gives the "gist" of the source text, but is not otherwise usable.
   However, in fields with highly limited ranges of vocabulary and simple sentence structure, for example weather reports, machine translation can deliver useful results.
   Engineer and futurist Raymond Kurzweil has predicted that by 2012, machine translation will be powerful enough to dominate the translation field. MIT's Technology Review also listed universal translation and interpretation as likely "within a decade" in its 2004 list. Such claims, however, have been made since the first serious forays into machine translation in the 1950s.
   [edit]
   Computer-assisted translation
   See also full article: Computer-assisted translation.
   Computer-assisted translation (CAT), also called computer-aided translation, is a form of translation where a human translator creates a target text with the assistance of a computer program. Note that in computer-assisted translation, the machine supports the translator.
   Computer-assisted translation can be seen to include standard dictionary and grammar software; however, the term is normally used to refer to a range of specialised programs available for the translator.
   For example, translation memory (TM) programs store and align previously translated source texts and their equivalent target texts in a database.
   They split the source text into manageable units known as "segments." Typically, each source-text sentence or sentence-like unit (headings, titles or elements in a list) is considered a segment, although texts are sometimes segmented into paragraphs instead of sentences. As the translator works through a document, the translation memory displays a source segment and a previous translation for re-use, if such a previous translation exists, or prompts the translator to enter a new translation. After the translation for a segment is completed, the program stores the new translation and moves onto the next segment. The translation memory, in principle, is a simple database with a pair of entries for each segment: an entry for the source segment and the corresponding entry for the segment translation provided by the translator.
   [edit]
   Cultural translation
   This is a new area of interest in the field of translation studies. Cultural translation is a concept used in cultural studies to denote the process of transformation, linguistic or otherwise, in a given culture. The concept uses linguistic translation as a tool or metaphor in analysing the nature of transformation in cultures. For example, ethnography is considered a translated narrative of an abstract living culture.
   [edit]
   Criticism of translation
   From time to time, criticism can be made of the act of translation. One such criticism is the lack of "coherence" in translation. The criticism can be stated as follows. If a story originally written in English, and taking place in an English speaking country, is translated into French, for example, it can lose its logic because of sentences like "Do you speak English?" The critic asks what the translation should be. "Parlez-vous anglais?" or "Parlez-vous franГais?". According to this criticism, the answer will be self-contradictory. If the answer to the question were yes, for the first translation this would mean something like, "Yes I speak a language you are not using and that is absolutely irrelevant". For the second translation it would mean "Yes, this is an English speaking country, and yet everyone, including myself, is speaking French." The gist of this criticism that one of the main rules in translation is to "keep the context", and that the language of the document is itself the heart of the context.
   This criticism can be rebutted in several ways. First, this kind of situation arises rarely in real-world translations. When it does, the translator can use techniques to avoid the problem by, for example, translating "Do you speak English?" by "Do you speak my language?" or "Do you understand what I say?" Another point is that a French-speaking reader who is reading a book written by, say, Agatha Christie describing a murder in an English stately home, most likely realises that the characters were speaking English in the original.
   Another criticism is of a more philosophical nature. It claims that translation can be described as writing what you have read in another language. The question arises whether the reader can know whether the translator understands the original author perfectly. While this is the translator's job, it is the author who is praised for the work; but can a translation of Asimov be considered as Asimov's work? According to this criticism, translation could even be seen as "legal plagiarism". Translations can be quite different from the original: for instance, the name of Zaphod Beeblebrox in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams was translated into French by Jean Bonnefoy as Zapi Bibici, and the name of Captain Widdershins in A Series of Unfortunate Events by Lemony Snicket was translated into Portuguese as CapitЦo AndarrИ. While this is not a huge difference, it is there. Adams and Snicket may not have been completely happy with this change, and it is by a series of such small changes that a translation becomes an adaptation, according to this criticism.
   This is a long-time complaint of translation, that is expressed in the Italian expression Traduttore, traditore -- every translation is a betrayal. On the other hand, rarely is a work of fiction translated without a negotiation as to rights, and many an author will be happy to put aside reservations about the names of characters for the opportunity to increase his readership.
   [edit]
   See also
   [edit]
   General
  -- Computer-assisted translation (CAT)
  -- Cultural identity
  -- Dubbing
  -- Fan translation
  -- Scanlation
  -- Fansub
  -- Legal translation
  -- List of translators
  -- Machine translation (MT)
  -- Parallel translation
  -- Subtitling
  -- Terminology
  -- Transculturation
   [edit]
   Translation theory
  -- Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
  -- Untranslatability
  -- Walter Benjamin
  -- Antoine Berman
  -- Friedrich Schleiermacher
   [edit]
   Noted translators
  -- Nancy Andrew (Japanese to English)
  -- Claude BИdard (English to French)
  -- Jacques Brault (French to English)
  -- Sheila Fischman (French to English)
  -- Edward FitzGerald (1809-1883)
  -- Linda Gaboriau
  -- Felix Paul Greve aka Frederick Philip Grove (1879-1948) (Literature from English, French, Italian, Spanish into German)
  -- Hsuan-tsang (600?-664)
  -- Kumarajiva
  -- Richmond Lattimore
  -- Rika Lesser
  -- Tiina Nunnally (Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish to English)
  -- Sergio Pinheiro Lopes
  -- Daniel Poliquin (French to English)
  -- Gregory Rabassa
  -- Ebba Segerberg
  -- Joan Tate
  -- Laurie Thompson
  -- See also:
  -- Bible translators
  -- List of translators
   [edit]
   References
  -- L'Иpreuve de l'Иtranger by Antoine Berman (1984). Excerpted in English in: The Translation Studies Reader edited by L. Venuti (2002, 2nd ed 2004).
  -- Nimrod's Sin: Treason and Translation in a Multilingual World edited by Norman Simms (1983).
  -- эber die verschiedenen Methoden des эbersetzens by Friedrich Schleiermacher (1813). Reprinted as On the Different Methods of Translating in: The Translation Studies Reader edited by L. Venuti (2002, 2nd ed 2004).
  -- Translation: agent of communication guest-edited by Marilyn Gaddis Rose (a special issue of Pacific Moana Quarterly, 5:1) (1980).
  -- Translation Review.
  -- The Translator's Invisibility by Lawrence Venuti (1994).
  -- Towards a Theory of Constraints in Translation by Ali Darwish (www.at-turjuman.com) (1999).
   [edit]
   External links
   [edit]
   About translation
  -- On the Relative (Un)translatability of Puns
  -- The German-English Translator Blog -- Everything you ever wanted to know about translation and interpreting
  -- Translation Journal
  -- Babelport -- Daily News covering Translation Industry / CAT Tools / Linguistics / Awards and Stipends
  -- Inttranews -- the multilingual daily news site for interpreters, translators and linguists in general
   [edit]
   Translation Associations
  -- American Translators Association
  -- Australian Institute of Interpreters and Translators
  -- Canadian Translators, Terminologists and Interpreters Council
  -- Institute of Translation & Interpreting (UK)
  -- International Federation of Translators
  -- Globalization and Localization Association
  -- Association Internationale des InterprХtes de ConfИrence/International Association of Conference Interpreters
  -- International Association of Conference Translators
  -- Irish Translators' Association
  -- New Zealand Society of Translators and Interpreters
   Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation"
   Categories: Communication | Translation
   Views
  -- Article
  -- Discussion
  -- Edit this page
  -- History
   Personal tools
  -- Sign in / create account
  
   0x01 graphic
Navigation
  -- Main Page
  -- Community Portal
  -- Current events
  -- Recent changes
  -- Random article
  -- Help
  -- Contact Wikipedia
  -- Donations
   Search

Начало формы

   0x01 graphic
0x01 graphic
  0x01 graphic

Конец формы

   Toolbox
  -- What links here
  -- Related changes
  -- Upload file
  -- Special pages
  -- Printable version
  -- Permanent link
  -- Cite this article
   In other languages
  -- ?esky
  -- Dansk
  -- Deutsch
  -- EspaЯol
  -- Euskara
  -- FranГais
  -- ???
  -- Italiano
  -- Magyar
  -- Bahasa Melayu
  -- Nederlands
  -- ???
  -- Polski
  -- PortuguЙs
  -- Русский
  -- Simple English
  -- Slovenš?ina
  -- Svenska
  -- ??
  
  
  -- This page was last modified 22:13, 11 February 2006.
  -- All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License (see Copyrights for details).
Wikipediaў is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.
  -- Privacy policy
  -- About Wikipedia
  -- Disclaimers
   0x01 graphic
 Ваша оценка:
Связаться с программистом сайта.

Новые книги авторов СИ, вышедшие из печати:
О.Болдырева "Крадуш. Чужие души" М.Николаев "Вторжение на Землю"

Как попасть в этoт список
Сайт - "Художники" .. || .. Доска об'явлений "Книги"