Аннотация: [February 9, 2018 08:08] Phased translation from Russian into English. Владимир Владимирович Залесский "Эдисон. Человек освещающий. Культурологический очерк".
Edison. The Human of Light. Culturological essay
1. Cultural figure of scientifically technical revolution. "On all this I have no time"
Thomas Edison is traditionally perceived as the outstanding inventor. The result of activity of the inventor is certain the new product or improvement, new essential technical solution.
The life story of Edison shows that he was not only the inventor. He was an outstanding figure of culture in scientifically-technical sphere. It is possible to carry to number of results of his life not only inventions. Appeared a new sphere of life - scientifically-technical - and in this sphere of life, thanks to Thomas Edison, new cultural samples and forms of activity have taken roots.
The historical importance of these new samples and forms is that, first, they are have created a new cultural standards, the cultural stereotypes, the all-accepted understanding of the compulsory for the arising scientifically technical sphere, secondly, they are have created mighty attractiveness of scientifically technical sphere to representatives practically of all social groups.
Five notions are key for the description of a cultural contribution of Thomas Edison: (1) "Engineer electrician (electrical engineer)", (2) "Laboratory", (3) "Collectivity of creativity", (4) "Innovative (inventive) entrepreneurship", (5) "Yield of inventions; profitability of innovations".
2. "Engineer electrician". Marquis or emperor?
The book by Mitchell A. Wilson 'Американские ученые и изобретатели' ("American scientists and inventors") published in English in 1954, in Russian - in 1975, ([Wilson M.]) interesting observation contains:
"Edison has stepped on a way of inventions , having taken in a partners the certain Poup. They called themselves "engineers electricians", giving to these words absolutely new sense".
The concept "ENGINEER" (fr. ingenieur, from latin ingenium - ability, ingenuity), is defined as "the specialist with the higher technical education".
"Originally - the name of the persons managing the military vehicles. The concept the civil engineer has appeared in the 16th century in Holland in relation to builders of bridges and roads, then in England and other countries. The first educational institutions for training of engineers have been created in the 17th century in Denmark, in the 18th century - in Great Britain, France, Germany, Austria, etc. In Russia the first engineering school is founded by Peter I in 1712 in Moscow" (the Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1969-1978)).
"... About the word "engineer". From the Latin word ingenium occurred Italian ingegno, French ingenieux and English enginous. It means ... ability to solve the problems in situations of different practical difficulties" (В. Г. Горохов 'Петр Климентьевич Энгельмейер. Инженер механик и философ техники. 1855-1941.', книга издана в 1997 году ([Горохов]); V.G. Gorokhov "Pyotr Klimentyevich Engelmeyer. Mechanical engineer and philosopher of the equipment. 1855-1941.", the book is published in 1997 ([Gorokhov])).
Three preliminary remarks concerning "giving of new sense" to the term "Engineer electrician ".
(1) Thomas Edison had no formal higher technical education, but he had "ability" and "ingenuity". Edison's "engineer" is, to a large extent, - an inventor.
(2) To someone it may seem interesting: the ancestors of Thomas Edison were the Millers, natives of the Netherlands, one of those countries, where formation of the concept "civil engineer" has begun.
(3) Thomas Edison (1847-1931) lived during period when there were revolutionary changes in public life of the USA and in the sphere of the technical equipment.
In 1865 Civil war in the USA was ended. By 1877 in the USA process of creation of the uniform national market has completed that has been caused by reorganization of the Southern States for the benefit of capitalist development. The power of the federal government became significantly more powerful, respectively, basics have been created for more effective application of the federal legislation, including, patent legislation .
The patent in the second half of XIX - the beginning of the 20th centuries turns into success tool.
In the technical sphere appeared such phenomenon as "electrification". Electrification of types (branches) of industrial activity (for example, communications), electrification of houses, districts, countries, whole world.
Traditional spheres of application of efforts by "engineers" have been "complemented" with electrification.
The most vigorous persons have felt that their time comes. In 1868 Thomas Edison recieved the first patent which has remained unclaimed. But the path of length of a thousand Li - that is, a thousand patents - begins with one step.
Approximately in 1870 Edison sells the patent for an exchange ticker for 40 thousand dollars.
With what cultural formats, images, samples Thomas Edison was operating, when he "created" the type of "engineer electrician"?
First, hired workers. They had various level of initiative and independence.
It can be assumed that for employed in the drawing (draftsmen), it was lower - they had not high level of initiative. (The career of draftsmen was "passed", for example, and Columbus, and Magellan (in cartographer option), and Nikola Tesla, and Charles Steinmetz. None of the called persons were satisfied with a position of the draftsman).
Almost independent performers of infrastructure projects (we may speak for example about the inventor of the steam-engine James Watt, who was performing at one time functions of the contractor during creation of channels) had very insignificant degree of subordination; they were the persons rather independent (but Watt wasn't satisfied work of the contractor).
The engineer of railway industry N. Garin-Mikhailovsky in some cases was one of the central figures when determining a trajectory of the Great Siberian railway track (that is, he made in some cases principal historical decisions).
Secondly, "semi-hired" figures of the earliest stages of electrification: "the itinerant telegraph operators (telegraphers, telegraph specialists)". Telegraph operators had a certain baggage of scientifically technical knowledge, practical skills. Cable communication was developing, new jobs were appearing. The wandering telegraph operators were moving between various employers.
Intellectual level of these people wasn't identical. Lev Belkind in the book "Thomas Alvah Edison. 1847-1931", published in 1964, ([Belkind, a]), giving the characteristic of a labor way of Edison, as the telegraph operator, mentions: "Among former employees of telegraph in Cincinnati there was also George Kennan ... Kennan worked in Cincinnati even before arrival of Edison there. In 1864 he has been sent to Siberia where directed works on construction of the cable line of Russko of the American company. Kennan was an outstanding traveler; in 1864-1868 and 1885-1886 he studied Siberia. His book "Siberia and the Exile System" published in 1891 was very popular ...".
In the third, alchemists, which were subordinated only own enthusiasm sometimes extreme level.
Edison absorbed all this cultural baggage, has added to him catalysts of the starting the electrification and of the traditional American initiative, and has created absolutely new social and professional type, type of "engineer electrician".
This type in Edison is distinctly personalized and is idealized.
The practical embodiment of this type in other persons may not coincide with this ideal representation.
For simplification of perception of a subject we will begin with appearance.
In the book by Mitchell Wilson "American scientists and inventors", in books by Lev Belkind "Thomas Alvah Edison. 1847-1931" and "Charles Proteus Steinmetz. 1865-1923", published in 1965 ([Belkind, b]), photos of Edison and his contemporaries are published. Idealizing a little, it is possible to formulate so impressions of that type of the person - "engineer electrician" - which appears in some of these photos.
He is well dressed, looks good. He is cheerful, vigorous, toned, with good vitality. His face reflects a positive attitude, a positive spirit, positive emotions.
He is intellectual.
Photos show a suit jacket, a tie, a white shirt. The hat and a vest are sometimes visible. On poses and looks of characters it is visible that the clothes for them are comfortable.
In general, it is a type of the successful, cultural, intellectual person.
Naturally, such photos perform a certain lacquering function. Not always working conditions, such as conditions of experiments, allow to dress in this way. But general style is reflected.
Of course, it is idealized type. Lev Belkind, for example, describes a visit of delegation of the Russian technical society in 1911 to Europe and the USA for acquaintance with the electrotechnical plants and equipment and for establishing of personal contacts:
"America and G.E.C, as the major electrotechnical concern, were of the main interest to the Russian delegation. (...) The Russian delegation inquired in Schenectady not only the electrotechnical plants, but also Steinmetz. (...) When arrived, they saw how Steinmetz has taken an oar and have directed the boat to a house. (...) The gray-haired person with a long cigar in a mouth, dressed in pants and an undershirt has vigorously jumped out of the boat. His "dress" didn't correspond to ceremonial clothes of guests. It is clear, Steinmetz didn't know precisely when guests arrive therefore his appearance easily could be explained. But he also didn't try to make any changes or additions to his costume" ([Belkind, b]).
Thus, the reality is more diverse than an idealized image. But Edison's merit consists in creation of the all-adopted idealized image.
By 1868-1869 when Edison at rather serious level was engaged in business of inventions, scientifically technical thought has approached a qualitative boundary, electrification was on the agenda, in air the smell of the future victory of electricity was felt.
Thomas Edison suggested the type of victorious human (though, maybe, and not always honestly), man, living with courage, cheerfully, with pleasure, victoriously.
"Edison was growing as Impudent and slippery human. One day someone asked him: "Aren't you one of those boys, which were trading candies in boxes with false, in half-inch thickness, a bottom?" - "Isn't present, - Edison has answered, - in my boxes the bottom always was thickness in inch"" ([Wilson M.]).
Edison's success appears in two aspects: the personal success and the inventive economic success.
Of course, the criteria for this success - are of common accepted.
For the persons having special abilities, the standard criteria aren't always applicable.
If to speak about the success in common interpretation, then Edison could find "golden mean".
For an illustration we will make some comparisons, proceeding from the standard criteria of success.
Nikola Tesla who has moved to the USA from Europe (from Avstro-Hungary, Croatia, (Military (Serbian) Kraina), all his life remained the man not married; at the end stage of his life he began to communicate with one of nephews more closely; relatives, mostly, remained in Europe.
Charles Proteus Steinmetz the native of Silesia (then as a part of Germany), who has moved to the USA, hasn't married, in the end stage of his life has adopted as a son of one of employees - the married person with children; Steinmetz's relatives also remained in Europe.
Thomas Edison married two times (the second time he married, having become the widower); in both marriages children have appeared; Edison's father has moved to the son who has begun to succeed (Edison's mother by this moment has died).
For Nikola Tesla the hotels were his house almost his entire life in the United States.
On a slope of years at Charles Proteus Steinmetz has appeared the house.
Thomas Edison combined family life with the house creating.
As a result one of Edison's houses has turned into a certain national symbol. Lev Belkind, in particular, wrote:"... It is pleasant that Edison's laboratories in West Orange (State of New Jersey), where the inventor has worked about 50 years, were turned into a national monument (Edison Laboratory National Monument) [Thomas Edison National Historical Park], presented to the federal U.S. Government; this monument is under authority of National Park Service... Here are collected the relics relating to Edison's life and persons close to him, models or copies of the most part of his inventions, the tool which he used, library . There 3400 handwritten notebooks of Edison, original sketches of his inventions, 250 thousand units of storage - letters, documents and patents remain..." ([Belkind, a]).
М. Я. Лапиров-Скобло (Michael Lapirov-Skoblo) (1889-1947), one of Edison's biographers, the author of the Russian-language book "Edison" published in the series 'Life of remarkable people' in 1935 and 1960 (([Лапиров-Скобло М. Я. 'Эдисон'] [Michael Lapirov-Skoblo 'Edison']), has shared personal impressions with readers:
"Upon return from a trip across America, on May 6, 1926, the group of delegates of the International conference has visited Thomas Edison. Edison's laboratory in West Orange is in sixty kilometers from New York. Approaching Edison's manor, we first of all have heard beeps of the factories and plants located in West Orange and occupied with mass production of various objects - Edison's inventions.
To the right of gate - the big three-storyed house. We were led to big, high library of Edison where about 60 thousand books and magazines which Edison was collecting during all the long life are concentrated".
I haven't met the exact figures characterizing Edison's estate, Edison's livelihood, but, I believe that he can be called a very wealthy man.
"I received much, but what was remaining to me for personal human needs, makes approximately annual salary of the chairman of the railway company, needless to say, of the chairman of the big railway company. Money at me melting in hands as during all my life I did the experiments, the scientific and technical experiences, and on it the incredible quantity of dollars a year leaves. I spend for laboratory annually at least one million dollars" (Quotation: [Michael Lapirov-Skoblo "Edison"]).
In photos or in biographies there are no signs of addiction of Edison to luxury goods.
It can be assumed, that after the introduction of Edison's "cultural stereotypes" into the public consciousness, the belonging to the intellectual sphere was combined not particularly strongly with a passion for luxury goods.
Why was the "golden mean" of success mentioned above?
Here, for example, one of the most famous inventors - Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937). Article of Wikipedia "Marconi, Guglielmo" contains, in particular, the following data.
"He was born in Bologna, in family of the large landowner. (...) Then in a manor of the father he have begun to make experiments on the alarm system by means of electromagnetic waves. (...) ... The hypothesis has allowed Marconi to organize in December, 1901 the first radio communication through the Atlantic Ocean (he have given a Morse alphabet letter S), what he have reported personally about. This message wasn't confirmed by sources, nevertheless at the end of the next year he has create a certain type of a regular transatlantic radio communication. (...)
For merits before the state on December 30, 1914 Marconi has been appointed lifelong senator of Italy. (...)
In 1919 - the plenipotentiary representative of Italy at the Parisian peace conference. On behalf of Italy he has signed peace treaties with Austria and Bulgaria.
In 1932 - he have established the first radiotelephone microwave connection. In 1934 he has shown a possibility of application of microwave telegraphy for needs of navigation in the high sea.
He have spent the last years of life in Italy. After coming to power of fascism of Marconi welcomes him and in 1923 he have entered Fascist party.
On June 17, 1929 the king Victor Immanuil III granted to Marconi a hereditary title of the marquis.
In 1930 the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini appointed him the head of Royal Academy of Italy.
This post made him a member of the main governing body of fascist Italy - the Grand Fascist Council".
And here what is written by Lev Belkind: "since the time, when Edison has many years ago left work in telegraph service, he never of anybody was in the service. For many tens years, Edison worked as absolutely independent person. (...) At this time, after sinking of Lusitania in the summer of 1915, the USA prepared for the introduction in war. (...) So Edison became the head of the organization at the Navy ministry, which has received the name Naval Advisory Board" ([Belkind, a]).
Of course, the head of the consultative organization at one of the ministries (Navy) - it's not the plenipotentiary representative of the country at the Parisian peace conference, but nevertheless Thomas Edison's success as that is closer to "golden mean".
Having been in early youth the editor, the publisher and the correspondent of his own newspaper (with a little Circulation), Thomas Edison was able to be adjusted on the correct wave in the relations with public and with media.
Thomas Edison was compared to various outstanding figures. "... Sarah Bernhardt ... has politely noted his [Edison] similarity to Napoleon I" ([Чейни М. 'Тесла. Человек из будущего'; Cheney M. "Tesla. The person from the future"]).
On the other hand, it is possible to call Napoleon I "engineer" in a sense; as the professional artilleryman ("managing military machines") he had some right to be called so.
Apparently, Thomas Edison liked to emphasize the peaceful nature of his work (not numerous inventions of Edison in the military sphere nevertheless took place - for example, intricate versions of the torpedo and a gelikopter; the information about their actual embodiment and application I have not met).
Thus, the idealized social and professional type, an image of "engineer electrician ", shown to the world by Thomas Edison, included several images:
1) The victorious human, 2) the Person successful, 3) the Person knowing, smart, skillful, initiative, enterprising, creating most modern scientifically technical achievements, one of representatives of civilized mankind, 4) the Person sociable and attractive, "from the common people", 5) the Person peace-loving.
This idealized image, of course, was the important cultural factor facilitating entry of mankind into an electrification era.
3. "Laboratory". "I expend for laboratory annually at least one million dollars"
The term "LABORATORY" comes from late Latin word "laboratorium", from Latin "laboro" - work. Work in laboratory is connected with scientifically research, proyektno design, educational, control, experimental activity.
Thomas Edison has made "laboratory" one of signs of the successful inventor.
As the specialized place for professional works a concept "laboratory" grows from the concepts "office-room" and "library" (in sense: the place for placement of a book collection). These concepts in itself in practice pass one into another: the office-room, library, laboratory can be placed in three various rooms, and can be combined in one room.
The workplace, in a special way equipped (devices, reactants, etc.), acquires the right to be called "laboratory".
Those rooms, territories where Edison's activity was developed became subjects to visits of excursion type. Experts and representatives of general public considered them as a certain model of the correct, successful organization of inventive work.
"Menlo Park"!
Edison became some kind of fashion-maker in the field of the culture of the organization of inventive, intellectual work.
Edison has made an office-room, library, laboratory a standard set of the effective professional inventor.
The laboratory becomes the status symbol testifying to level, to creative ability, qualification, recognition, professionalism of its owner.
"My laboratory"!.
A special manifestation of genius can be called the so-called "mental laboratory". Technical solution, - in option of "Mental laboratory", - is carried to the level of working drawings directly in consciousness of the inventor. For an illustration we will cite Nikola Tesla's words:
"... Me has come the idea - as the flash of a lightning. In an instant I have seen her completely, and I have drawn schemes with a stick on sand , which are given in my fundamental patents of May, 1888 ... It is extremely difficult for me to present this experience to the reader in his true light and value because all this together was absolutely exclusive. When an idea appears, it is usually incomplete and imperfect. The birth, growth and development - phases normal and natural. With my invention there was other situation. At the most that moment when I have comprehended it [invention], I have seen it completely finished and completed. Besides, the theory no matter how plausible, has to be usually confirmed with an experiment. But with that that was formulated by me, was not so ... My imagined images were equivalent to reality" (N. Tesla "Some personal reminiscences").
Touching upon a subject of "mental laboratory", it is possible to mention also other example (from P.K. Engelmeyer's memoirs).
"In my stay in 1883 in Leipzig I have visited the plant of Rud. Zakk, wishing to get acquainted with the owner, the inventor of world famous plows and seeders personally. (...) His plant at which were 600 workers, already produced by mass production, i.e. in a large number of copies, very small number of separate models of machines, which were daily loaded by the whole railway wagons and went to all countries of light. At the plant I have found office with many people, but have found only one designer in technical bureau. The last has told this to me how Zakk invents the mechanisms. Having decided to invent the new mechanism, Zakk draws nothing, and bears it in own imagination. Only when the mechanism in imagination is ready in all smallest parts, Zakk is shut with the designer, and designer according to his instructions draws not that is called the project of the mechanism, and what is called working drawings, i.e. each detail directly full-scale. According to these drawings make models and templates, and under the personal guide of the inventor in a workshop the mechanism existing before only in imagination of the inventor grows. The designer assured me, that usually all prepared parts of well interact to each other. And meanwhile ordinary seeders of Zakk - machines quite difficult" (Quotation: [Gorokhov]).
Of course, levels of inventions of N. Tesla and R. Zakk were different. However farm vehicles had that advantage that they, - are products of "mental laboratory" of the inventor, - in the automatic mode became a Widely available technical exhibit, some kind of "message" for broad masses of the population: technical revolution has begun!
In the book by P.T. Astashenkov "Kurchatov" are lines about young Igor Kurchatov and his brother Boris:
"Igor and Boris have for the first time seen steam threshers. Rich Germans colonists established them Outside the village. Uniform noise of many machines, steam hissing, the smoking pipes - all this concerned and attracted children. They were turning and moving near mechanisms all day long, dreamed to work on them. As that them have entrusted to serve a boiler, and boys with special pleasure threw straw in a fire chamber, pumped up water in a copper, watched the vapor pressure, flywheel speed. The smell of smoke and hot oil, fluctuation of the soil in a step to the course of the mechanisms were for a long time remembered to Igor. (...)
Igor very much liked to represent himself at unprecedented vehicles, he imagined, how he makes obedient the unknown devices. About it he was seeing visions in reality and he was seeing dreams during sleeping".
When young Igor Kurchatov was seeing dreams about obedient unknown devices, Thomas Edison worked in the laboratory, and sometimes remembered the previous events.
"After laboratories in the cellar of the fatherly house in Port Huron, then in a baggage car of the train, after the experiments in a jewelry workshop, in dark corners of telegraph offices, after inventive work in unadapted rooms in Newark Edison got, at last, an opportunity to work in the specialised, equipped laboratory. Invention becomes his main profession" ([Michael Lapirov-Skoblo "Edison"]).
Laboratories of Thomas Edison and his contemporaries - presented in photos, in memoirs of eyewitnesses - formed idealized idea about certain standards of design. Modern, "fresh" building. Spacious , as a rule, light room. In some cases high ceilings are noticeable. Garbage - a concept relative; for some reason there is an impression that inside the room - clean. When we see a general view of the building with some details of an environment, there can be an impression which is described by the term "spaciousness".
Nearby Edison's laboratory the workshop arises. Through certain time the workshop becomes the scientifically technical enterprise.
Naturally, and the laboratory, and the workshop, and the scientifically technical (electrotechnical) enterprise aren't possible without "collectivity".
Edison: "... I don't need usual joys of rich men. I don't need neither horses, nor yachts, on all this I have no time. I need a workshop!" ([Wilson M.]).
Remembering early youth, many years later Edison said: "What only I didn't endure misadventures, beginning from early youth and till an extreme old age, but never was in such despair as when has lost the first laboratory" ([Belkind, a]).
During Edison Byuro's life of patents of the USA has granted to him 1093 patents - such quantity was never received by any person ([Wilson M.]).
4. "Collectivity of creativity". "We pay nothing, and we work all the time"
The science develops by efforts of scientific community.
However before the Edison life the main subject, main actor of intellectual activity was the individual person, separate person. During Thomas Edison's activity there was a Quality Leap: such subject, actor of scientific, inventive, intellectual activity was put in the forefront, as research team.
"At the beginning of the inventive activity at Edison was very few assistants and performers. Gradually, in process of development of his works, not only the number of employees increases, but there are also high-quality changes: there are scientists, the qualified technologists, designers, etc. All of them worked on implementation of the main plans of Edison according to the received tasks. Within a task the employee could and even has been obliged to show a creative initiative, to find original solutions, but he couldn't alter Edison's task. Work was distributing by Edison, well knowing the workers and understanding which of them will better perform this work.
(...) Edison ... sought to release the hands to have an opportunity as much as possible to load himself with the analysis, check of works, manifestation of an initiative and prevision.
Any of his employees mentally was capturing a part of the problem; Edison's mind was covering all the problem as a whole.
Of course, the collectivity of creativity wasn't Thomas Edison's invention.
We will remember Alexandre Dumas (father) ("Existence of "factory" doesn't raise doubts: the literary heritage by Dumas includes hundreds of volumes, and it was physically impossible to write so much alone (and even to dictate) even to the most hardworking and efficient author ..." (Wikipedia (Russian). Article "Dumas, Alexandre (Father)")).
Certain signs of "collectivity of creativity" took place and earlier of Edison activity. Thinkers, scientists, inventors had consultants, advisers, employees, assistants, helpers, pupils. But Thomas Edison has made the collective the constant and effective - powerful - the subject, the actor, the participator of scientific, inventive activity.
Scientifically technical, inventiveness collective was successfully integrated into the social and legal, common cultural environment.
We will compare to A. Dumas's "factory": if scientifically technical collective is perceived as the progressive phenomenon, then at literary "factory" the elements of doubtfulness is still felt.
Who these people by whom Thomas Edison has created the collective were? I will assume that these people have come (1) from farms on which was the manual hard work, often in ground's dirt, heat and a frost, (2) from the mines, - coal, iron ore and others, (3) of small local shops, where they worked as sellers, loaders, general workers, (4) from sawmills, where hard work supplemented abundant alcoholic boozes and rude manners of people around, (5) from covered with soot workshops and small, enough primitive, enterprises with monotonous work and primitive social environment, etc. Someone in the past had a relative material welfare and some education, a certain organizational and enterprise experience. A part of employees of Edison consisted of educated emigrants from Europe, including - people with political problems.
In all these places from where they have come, they were waited - the many of them - years, decades, whole the lifes of a difficult , generally uninteresting job without perspectives. People with political problems in the homeland were waited by problems.
And suddenly they have appeared beside the world famous scientific "magician", in the interesting developing collectives, among the most intellectual and vigorous peers, in rather spacious, light and beautiful rooms filled with the mysterious, interesting, magic scientific equipment.